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June 5, 2003

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A Study on the Origin of
the word Vrihi

Asko Parpola has assumed that the cultivation of rice have spread from the Ganges valley to Swat, Pirak (Kachi plain) and Gujarat during the first quarter of the second millennium BC. He says that the rice undoubtedly came from the Ganges valley, and this suggests a new level of mobility in the North India. Again he says that, the etymology of the Vedic word for rice does not tally with the Proto-Austro-Asiatic words. Asko Parpola considers that the words for rice in Tamil (arici) and Sanskrit (Vrihi) have failed to demonstrate with any certainty the influences of the Austro- Asiatic loan words on the oldest phase of Indo-Aryan in the northwest.[1]

It seems that the word arici traveled westward. Inside India also several languages adopted the word arici. The possible answer to this predicament is that rice was not found as an alternative for the wheat-eating people in the Sanskrit belt, who were satisfied with wheat and they never felt the need to cultivate rice in their fields. This attitude can be seen in the south even today, where traditional rice eaters, are never interested to switch over to wheat, on any consequences.

It is interesting to recall references made in Sukraniti about Vrihi. Sukraniti mentions that Vrihi (oryza sativa) is used in rubbing the oyster pearls, soaked in to saline water during the previous night, in order to test its genuineness. Again it says that the culpability of an offender was determined by divya sadhana or divine test. In this the offender has to chew with out anxiety or fear one karsa amount of rice. In doing so, if the offender experiences difficulties through palpitation of heart or want of salivation the man would be declared guilty. The rice-ordeal is to be applied in a case involving theft of Rs. 125. A law has forbidden the king from receiving milk of cows & c., for his kith and kin nor paddy and clothes from buyers for his own enjoyment.

Rgveda mentions about rice. But it received more mention, with the advent of Yajurveda[2]. Arthasashtra says that Sanskrit has used different words to refer a variety of rice. Wheat, barley, rice were commonly known as vrihi. The knowledge about the stage in which rice came to be included in this word will enable us to fix up the road map of origin of domesticated rice cultivation in India.

Inside India, the word arici for rice is widely distributed with slight regional variations. Instead of picking up that trend why Sanskrit accepted Vrihi as the word to denote rice is really a baffling question. The time that is being taken for deciphering the origin of that word has made it a historical conundrum.

The prevailing opinion of the scholars is that the word Vrihi has got no relation with any Dravidian words. We will have a fresh look on the question of vrihi, not having any similarity with the Dravidian language.

Rice varieties
Rice formed an important item of food next only to yava which was considered as the most important.

Based on seasons, rice crops are distinguished by names like, the graishmic, varshic, hemanti, sharada for summer, rainy, autumn, winter crop respectively. The late maturing rice is ptasuka vrihi and the early maturing one is asu vrihi.

Sali, Vrihi and Sastika are the main varieties of rice. Raktasali considered being the best of all the corns, is one among them. Others are Mahasali, Kalama, Sugandha and Kasthasali. Vrihi is considered inferior to Sali and sastika. Vrihi was largely used in sacrifices and eating. [3]

It is tandula for threshed out paddy grain, akshat for unbroken rice, nivar, namba and vrihi for the transplanted rice. The unhusked and pounded rice mixed known as akshata, is used in religious ceremonies and the homam using this mixture is known as akshata homam.

Vrihi ripened in autumn, Sali in winter, Sastika in summer. Sastika is quicker in growth, which can be harvested with in sixty days of cultivation (Arthashastra). Vishnu Dharmottara makes reference about the two varieties of swastika, rakta sastika, a medicinal variety, and pramodaka sastika.

Shashty is sixty in English. The completion of sixty years of age is shastypoorthy. Navara rice is of two kinds, whitish and blackish (kakalakam). Shastikam is the navara variety, which takes sixty days for harvesting. It is a graishmic variety. The field in which navara is cultivated is known as shastikyam. Navara rice is also known as shastihayanam. Gundert claims that there are two varities of navara, one that ripens at the end of two months and the other at the end of three months. Gundert says that the origin of the word navara may be from navati.

According to Hindu Mythology sarad is Saraswati or Durga. One aspect of the saptamatr is also known as shasti. Navara is known as paadalam. Durga Bhagavathy is known as paadala/ paadalavathy.

One-sixth part of the income is shashta. The king was known as Shastamsavrithi. One by sixth of the rice harvested belonged to the Rajah. So the raja came to be known as shastamsavrithi. Rice is poured on the head of the rajas of Kerala as a part of the installation ceremony, known as ariyittu valccha.

Karingali is the name of a tree. But a variety of rice is also known by that name. Salini is the name of a rice variety. Arundhati is also known by that name. Salyannam is the cooked rice of this variety of rice.

Efforts made by Gundert and Asko Parpola are praise worthy. But the deduction made by Gundart (vridha?) stands as an incomplete effort. We shall not allow it to remain as such forever. Vrihi is generally used for any grain including wheat, barley and rice. It is a generic term applied to all varities of rice. This word might have accommodated rice at a later stage. Similarity has been observed for the word Vrihi (Sanskrit) with the Dravidian words vari, and ari. Similarity can also be observed for the wrijzey (Pushto), birinji (Persian), brinji and the Malayan word beras. The words for rice in Greek and Latin shows more affinity to the Tamil word arici.

To cite an example, the advent of regular maritime communication, Indonesia made it easy for the transport of staple cereal into Indonesia. Sorghum (Sorghum vulgare) was the first cereal to be introduced, followed by foxtail millet into Indonesia. But foxtail millet in West Indonesia is known as sorghum. In Malay jawa (jawa-wut, jawa-ras, zawaH), equally means grain, including foxtail millet. Barley is java in Pali and yava in Sanskrit.

So all the successive interpretation failed to explore whether there are any influence from the far south in the shaping of the rice culture in India and abroad. Asko Parpola has pointed out the Gangetic plane for the rice in the Indus valley. It is also suggested elsewhere that the India got the rice culture from the Greek. The word arici came from the Malaysia and so on.

Tendency in south India is also the same. In our dictionaries the word pathayam is considered as a Portuguese word. Really the word pathayam was originated from Pathu (paddy field) and ayam (income). Both words when combined, attain the meaning the granary, in which we store the grain that we harvest. But unfortunately we failed to identify our own word and attributed its origin to the Portuguese. This loss of direction is seen in the case of the rice also. We are not even bold enough to assume that we were capable of doing things on our own.

Mother goddess – the beginning of agriculture

Malayalam dictionaries have attributed meaning to the word Bharya for wife, as that person who is responsible for collecting/gathering grains for the household. This shows that the advent of agriculture women began to take a leading role in the society.

Monopoly of women folk in the agriculture in the beginnings is the reason for the advent of mother goddess in the Hindu pavilion. The excavation in the Indus valley too establishes this truth. We have come across findings of Shiva and mother goddesses from that civilization. Sir. Marshall says that only in the prehistoric past, tree worship and blood sacrifice were relevant these rituals were taken over by staff and arattam during later periods. (Introduction to Mohanjadaro and Indus Civilization)

Tree worship

A curry, made of greens is known as ilakkari. The material used for this curry is known as sakam. While the curry made out of the leaf of the sakam is sakothanam, the field in which this sakam is planted is sakinam. Vegetable food is known as sakaharam. The word sakam also means sakthi. Durga is known as sakambhari.

The crest of a tree or a mountain is known as sikha. Durga is known as sikhara vasini/ Vindhya vasini. No more evidence is needed to prove that Durga was considered once upon a time as the goddess of vegetation.

The village deity, lodged in a small shrine, constructed on a primitive pattern, is typical in South India. This gramadevata cult however preceded by an earlier cult with no temples at all. Lodged in open air, in the shadow of a big tree, the tree itself is regarded as the embodiment of the deity. Considered as the sacred tree of the village it received all paraphernalia of worship, which are found in worshipping the deity in the subsequent phases.[4] Gods and goddesses of South India were worshipped in the form of trees in the beginnings. In fact Gods lived in the trees. Thus tree worship is an important aspect of historic past. Koovalam (Aegle marmelos) is known as sivadrumam. Mango for muniswar; Vinayaka lived amidst paddy fields, on the banks of water channels.

Karanja (Pongamia glabra) is sacred to Varahi. Karanjanilaya is an ancient goddess of vegetation. Vegatative aspect of lord Siva is Durga. The food produces from her body she sustains every one. The other names are yajnanga, yajniyam, bahusaram, krishnakhnam, krisnari, krishnathothanam, krishnaripu. Both karingali tree and durga are knownas gayatri.

Karajam is a weapon. Karingali wood is used for brushing teeth. Its wood is taken for construction of temple, handles of weapons, plough, oil grinder, cart wheels, etc etc. It is also served as an ingredient for several Ayurvedic medicines, including tooth powder. A product made out of this tree is boiled in water to serve as appetizer or to quench one’s thirst. Karingali is a necessary ingredient in the khadiraarishta.

A variety of paddy is also known as karingali. Astrology insists that each person born on a particular austerik should protect and worship an animal, a bird, and a tree. There are twenty such trees. For the betterment of their life they were bound to protect them. Karingali is the tree for those born in the austerik makayiram.

Varahi

Varahi is the consort of Boar, the female energy of boar form of Vishnu. She is also a mother attending on Skanda (Mahabharata) and sow[5]. A form of Devi, she is considered as the consort of Varaha. Head of a female boar and the body of a female, with coral ornaments, constitutes Varahi. So she is known as varahimukhi. As a crown she wears a karantamakutam on her head.

Plough, spear, the karanja her sacred tree, are her emblems. Balarama, Thrivikrama, Shanmukha, Saraswathy, are the others to wield Plough as a weapon. While an elephant is portrayed on her banner, her mount is an elephant, boar or a buffalo. According to the Vishnudharmottara she has six hands. Four of them carry a staff, sword, shield, and noose and the remaining two hands being in abhaya and varada mudras respectively.

Brahmi, Maheswari, Kaumari, Vashnavi, Varahi, Indri, Kali are the six forms of Durga. While some varities of rice is known as Karingali, jaya, paadala, shashtika Durga is known as karingali, Jaya, gayatri, karanjanilaya, Vindhyavasini, Sikharavasini, shashti, patalavati, sakambhari.

The meaning of the word Vrihi includes a grain, paddy, and a grain of paddy. It is a varshic crop. Mahavrihi, vrihisrestam are the names of a kind of rice. Vyhreya is that which is related to vrihi. Vyhreyam is the field in which the vrihi is grown. Bahuvrihi is the place where there is plenty of vrihi grain. Vrihyagaram means a granary.

The words in Malayalam like veranda, viral (a kind of fish) became vranda and vral. Likewise the word varahi might have changed in to vrihi.

– Dr. V.Sankaran Nair
June 1, 2003

[1] Asko Parpola, Deciphering the Indus Script, p.137.
[2] Om Prakash, Food and Drinks in Ancient India, Munshiram Manoharlal, Delhi, 1961,p.7-33.
[3] VishnuDharmottara Purana, 3.314,v.lb.
[4] see N.Venkata Ramanayya, An essay on the origin of South Indian Temple, Asian Educational Services, New Delhi, 1985.
[5] Menaka Gandhi, The Penguin Book of Hindu names,Penguin Books India (Ltd.), New Delhi, 1989.



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Responses:

• From: Sankara (@ commons10k1.mo24.107.45.120.charter-stl.com) on: Sun May 9 04:43:13
  
  The author does himself a disservice by citing world-class idiots like Parpola. Parpola knows least about Hindu history.
  
  Rice cultivation begain South China and spread to India very early on via SE Asia. It was known to the Vedic Hindus much before wheat, corn, etc..... To this day, rice is part of tilak...... whether in South or North...... Wheat has minimal standing compared to rice in Hinduism.......
  
  
• From: d prabha (@ ) on: Sun Aug 15 01:57:44
  
  
  August 14, 2004
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  Environment
  Etymological Conduit
  to the Land of Qanat
  
  Qanat is an ancient system found in arid regions that bring groundwater from the cliff, or base of a mountainous area, following a water-bearing formation (aquifer) or rarely from rivers, and emerge at an oasis, through underground tunnel or a series of tunnels. The tunnels perhaps several kilometers long, are roughly horizontal, with a slope. This allows water to drain out to the surface by gravity to lower and flatter agricultural land. Considered to be the oldest feat of human engineering, this system can be found still working in Iran, North Africa, China, the Arabian Peninsula, and Afghanistan and beyond.
  
  In the plateau regions of Iran water obtained in this way from the subsurface is used for domestic and agricultural purposes. The adoption of this technique in a big way transformed the entire arid Arab world in to a sort of oasis of date palms or other crops. While a natural spring sustains a natural oasis, it can be considered as a natural qanat. But a man made tunnel, has made it possible for other oases to come up enabling settlers to find pastures new in the arid zone of the desert. First settlers who lived in the natural oases might have developed the idea of qanat to bring other arid but fertile terrain under cultivation and sustain their life.
  
  The word qanat, pronounced as ‘kanat’ in Arabic and karez in Pashto is referred to by different names in different regions: Qanat (Iran); karez (Afghanistan and Pakistan); kanerjing (China); qanat romani (Jordan and Syria); khettara (Morocco); galeria (Spain); falaj (United Arab Emirates); Kahn (Baloch). Foggara/ fughara is the French translation of the Arabic qanat, used in North Africa.
  
  The widespread distribution of qanat known in different places in their local names has confounded the question of its origin.
  
  The earthquake of 26 December 2003 uncovered an old city and the qanat system in Bam, dating to more than two thousand years. The preliminary studies held by the Archaeologists discovered this qanat to be the oldest one, belonging to the time of the Seleucids-Achaemenids.
  
  Polybius credits the Achaemenids with the origin of qanats to bring water to remote areas throughout the empire through the use of qanats. He draws a direct connection between the spread of a technology and a political initiative. "At the time when the Persians were the rulers of Asia they gave to those who conveyed a supply of water to places previously unirrigated the right of cultivating the land for five generations [so that] people incurred great expense and trouble making underground channels reaching a long distance."
  
  From Persians (Iran) Qanats expanded east along the silk route to China and spread to India, Arabia, Egypt, North Africa, Cyprus, the Canary Islands, and Spain and even to the New World. Geographer Paul Ward English considers the realm of the Persians, as the core area of qanats with very numerous and old qanats. The Persian construction techniques are old and fully developed, and their language, rich in words relating to qanat technology.
  
  Of course, the answer to this question also holds the key to unlock the prehistory of mankind. An attempt is made here to fix the place of origin of this system of irrigation following the pattern of word formation.
  
  Men and Materials
  
  Muqannis
  
  The Muqannis are the hereditary class of professional qanat diggers in Iran who build and repair these systems. Their work is hazardous and they are paid high wages. They command respect and have inspired a body of folk custom and belief. “A muqanni will not work on a day he considers to be unlucky, or if he sneezes on that day. Floods and cave-ins in the qanat tunnels are frequent, and deaths among muqannis occur. Older muqannis are considered blessed or at the very least lucky. Prayers are performed each time a muqanni descends into a qanat. This ceremony makes a deep impression on Iranian villagers.”
  
  Their counter parts in Morocco, until a generation ago, were the haritin. The agricultural maintenance in general was their task. An entire class of haritin was known as khattater from khettara, analogous to the mughanni in Iran. The khettater/ haritin in general, were a social class held as chattel and were viewed with contempt. But now they are a liberated, caste. But the mughanni, in spite of their low caste and crude work, are still held in esteem for their skill and performance. (Moroccan Khettara: Traditional Irrigation and Progressive Desiccation, Geoforum (27:2), 1996, pp. 261-273).
  
  In Sanskrit, one who digs/ mines a well is known as Kupa khanakan. In Iran, the qanat digger is Muqanni, an amalgam of two words, Mu+khani. Khani is khanakan one who mines a tunnel. The word mu can be either muzhu, or mukya. Where as mukhya means the main person, muzhu has several meanings such as perfect, complete, drown in the water, fulfill etc. The meaning attributed to muzhu and mukhya are fitting to the expertise of Muqanni. This conveys that the word under discussion is a Sanskrit word.
  
  Mattock
  
  The mattock is a domestic/ agricultural tool used for digging and mining. The head terminating in a broader blade rather than a narrow spike, which makes it particularly suitable for breaking up moderately hard ground. Tankam is a Sanskrit word for a hatchet or a hoe. It is also known as a crow bar. While breaking a stone, the instrument produces a sound “tung,” hence the name, tankam. The word mata in Malayalam means a sluice or water channel. The tankam used in a sluice (mata) came to be known as mattock amalgamating the two words mata and tunkam.
  
  Charkha
  
  The construction of a qanat is a teamwork headed by a muqanni, who excavates the tunnel with a small pick and shovel, while his apprentice packs the loose dirt into a leather bucket. Two laborers at the surface of the shaft, pull this dirt up, using a hoist. This windlass is known as charka in Persian language. It is familiar everywhere in India, as the spinning wheel. The principle applied in the windlass and the spinning wheel are the same.
  
  For a tunnel measuring one kilometer long with one-half meter in diameter the removal of rocks amount around 3000 and 4000 tons.
  
  Excavation
  
  Madari chah
  
  Before taking up the actual construction of the qanat, muqanni decides the site of the mother-well, known as madari chah. This forms the origin of the qanat and lies at the extreme end from the settlement.
  
  The god of wind is known as matharisva (v) and it rhymes with madari chah. The word means he, who enriches in the mother’s womb, in the atmosphere. Water is enriched in the mother-well dug in the cliff. In this context matharisva must be the original word for the mother-well and the madari chah must be its metamorphosis.
  
  Gamaneh
  
  After deciding the potential site for the madari chah, the muqanni concentrates on digging one or more trial shafts (gamaneh). The mother shaft has to make a way into a relatively constant source of groundwater penetrating the water table, after weighing a variety of geographical factors. The factors being local slope conditions, the surrounding landscape, subtle changes in vegetation, available groundwater, and the anticipated destination of the water. Then only it becomes the mother well of the qanat.
  
  Mazhar
  
  After the collection gallery for the mother well is dug, the builders move down slope and decide the destination point, where water surfaces. The excavation of the tunnel starts from there, by burrowing back almost horizontally toward the mother well. Crouching in the tunnel, they hollow out with hammer and chisel (rukhani). Successive vertical shafts connect the tunnel with the surface every 50 to 100 meters or so and extend the under ground tunnel toward the point at which it surfaces kilometers away. In some cases, these shafts are dug first, and the tunnel is chiseled subsequently to connect their bases.
  
  Where the tunnel passes through a deposit of soft sand, the tunnel is likely to collapse. The baked clay hoops, inserted in the tunnel to provide extra support, are called nays.
  
  The exit of a qanat is known as mazhar. This tunnel adit is similar to a mine entrance. This cleft is malamuzha in Malayalam. This word rhymes with mazhar. In fact qanat is a mine and the water that flows out from a mined qanat is naturally ‘mineral’ water.
  
  Once a trial shaft has struck water, and the shaft becomes the mother well of the qanat, the length of the tunnel can be determined by measuring from mother well to the place where water surfaces (mazhar). In the event the alignment of the qanat fails to connect the water-filled base of the mother well with a point on the surface immediately above the settlement by means of a gently sloping tunnel, the qanat emerges some distance away from the settlement, with hazardous effects.
  
  These holes of the successive vertical shafts sunk to excavate the horizontal tunnel of a qanat, will look like a line of ant-hills, stretching for miles, when viewed from the air, They indicate the course of the qanat from the source to the oasis. The holes were left open after the underground canal was completed, enabling subsequent inspection and repair.
  
  Awamir
  
  The Awamir are particularly accomplished at excavating qanat, through a hard rock - a frightening task. The Sanskrit word avaram conveys the meaning for the word Awamir. Avaram indicates the bank from which the opposite bank is fixed. That means the bank where there is no water.
  
  Ambar
  
  Continuous flow of water is viewed wasteful. As such, it is controlled to a large extent, especially during periods of low water use in fall and winter, using watertight gates that seal off the mazhar. In spring and summer, night flow is stored and held in small reservoirs (ambar) at the mouth of the qanat, for daytime use.
  
  Ambaram in Sanskrit is sky, atmosphere, ether and water. Ambarakesan is Lord Siva. He is also known as Vyomakesan. Ambaraganga is the heavenly Ganges. Ambaratatini/ Ambaranadi means the heavenly Ganges as well as the Ganges. Ambarasthali is the earth. Water emerging from the sky is meeting the earth. As such ambaram can either be water or the point where it meets the earth.
  
  If we look at the whole theme of the qanat, starting from the high place and reaching the earth by means of underground conduits, one can imagine the river Ganges hiding in the cliff of Lord Siva and emerging out to the land.
  
  Body of Customs and Law
  
  Shari’a
  
  Qanats help to create particular societal relationships and socio-economic conditions in the villages they serve. The body of custom and law (shari’a) relating to qanats codified in the Kitab-i Qani (Book of Qanats) in the ninth century strives to protect the investment of qanat owners in permanent agricultural settlement.
  
  Water, drawn from the site where the mother well is situated is known as sharia. This water gives the first opportunity for every one to use the water and it is free for every one. The word sarasari is a Persian word used in Malayalam profusely. It’s meaning is from end to end, medium between two extremes. Become equal or equipoise, equality, parity and so on.
  
  Madaar
  
  Water from Qanats, owned communally, is distributed on a rotational basis over a period (10-14 days) to community members. This is known as 'madaar'. Equivalent word in Malayalam for madaar is Mathi. Mathi in Sanskrit means measurement of area, weight, size etc. In Tamil it means number of times. It also covers meaning such as order, rule, custom, turn of shift, fixed time or turn, installment, number of times. It corresponds to the Arabic meaning of rotation.
  
  Dawran
  
  Means firmness, state of being indebted. Another word in this regard is dharanpatram, which means memorandum of understanding, documents in vogue on property, agreement on paper etc.
  
  One Well, So Many Names
  
  Aflaj
  
  In the slopes of mountains the shallow places where the water is collected during rainy days is known as playa. Plavanam and aplavanam in Sanskrit means inundate, to overflow. These words can be attributed to the origin of the word falaj and aflaj. Qanats are as Aflaj in Oman.
  
  Ammaya (ap+maya) means watery, formed from water. Ammatram (ap+matram) merely water. These ideas have been consolidated in the word Umm Al falaj that means mother well. Water is appu in Sanskrit, appos in Greek, aqua in Latin and Aflaj in Arabic. Lord Varuna, the guardian of the west as well as water, is known as appathi, apam nathan and apampathi.
  
  Ancient aflaj, still course like arteries beneath the hills and plains of Oman, twisting along precipitous cliffs and threading villages and date-palm groves, bringing to the parched land water and coolness and life itself. The word aflaj itself denotes not only the water canals but also the irrigation network that relies on them and the social system that apportions water to the owners of water-shares. The aflaj have helped to shape the history and settlement patterns of oases, and they continue even now binding together each community that draws upon the water form the falaj.
  
  The shallow or surface waters found in the mountain wadis, or valleys, are lined with gravel and silt. They overlie consolidated rock in the valley floor. Water flows perennially through the surface layers of the wadi deposits.
  
  A ghayl falaj taps and conveys the water in an open channel to an oasis. The word kayam means great depth. Still other aflaj simply conduct water aboveground from a spring.
  
  Plg
  
  The 'aflaj' irrigation systems, introduced before Islam, formed the basis of agriculture and rural settlement. They often have several kilometres of underground channels tapping one or more mother wells. These water management systems are one-source/ multiple-users systems. Distribution of water and water rights is a key issue and it is therefore most appropriate to use the ancient term 'falaj' as it is derived from the ancient Semitic root 'plg' which has to do with divisions - to divide. (Wilkinson 1977:258-65, Dybro, Jens E. (1995) Islamic Law and the Development of Agricultural Settlement in Oman; On the Question of Tradition and Development Conference: Presented at "Reinventing the Commons," the fifth annual conference of the International Association for the Study of Common Property, May 24-28, 1995, Bodoe, Norway).
  
  The word Plg is division and is said related to Arabic three-consonant root flj signifying the division of property. Palak in Malayalam is water. But in the context of a system for dividing or distributing water, the Malayalam word is synonymous with the word Plg.
  
  Panku means part, share, and portion. Pakukkuka means the act of dividing (between), share, allot. Falaj might have derived from the word Palak but later on the word assumed the meaning Panku.
  
  Khettara
  
  In the northern section of the Tafilaft oasis in southern Morocco, qanats are locally known as khettara. The Malayalam word kottathalam means the floor of bricks or granite built around a well in the form of a platform. Kottakkorika means a bucket for drawing water from a well.
  
  Shallalah Saghirah
  
  A century ago, an abandoned Byzantine water tunnel was discovered and brought a lease of life to the village on the edge of the desert in Northern Syria. The village is called Shallalah Saghirah and it’s meaning is ‘Little Waterfall’. This word itself is a Sanskrit word. Salam is water. Salila is water, that which flows. Samudra is known as Salilanidhi, salilarasi. Sagaraga and Sagaragamini is river.
  
  Conclusion
  
  Great importance attached to irrigation from karizes in Balochistan can be gauged from the Baloch saying: “A mosque should be demolished if it obstructs the course of kariz.” (Makran District Gazetteer, p. 187,1906, reprinted 1986).
  
  Sura is water. When water makes its passage through a tunnel, it becomes a horizontal well. This flowing well is called surangam. The tunnel constructed for a flowing well, is therefore known in Sanskrit as Sravikupam.
  
  In Malayalam, the common word for a well or a mine is kinar. Kera(n)tu, kenatu, are some other words having the same meaning. Kinduka means to dig out, to scoop out. The root of the word kinar is kinduka.
  
  The word Quilon, a southern district in Kerala, is the anglicized form of Kollam. A Keralite will read the Arab Qanat only as kenat. He will not pronounce it as “quinat,” owing to his familiarity with the kinar. For him, keni, kenatu, kera(n)tu are the household words for well. The word karez occurs in Malayalam dictionaries to mean horizontal well. The word qanat, pronounced as ‘kanat’ in Arabic and karez in Pashto is kanerjing in China, qanat romani in Jordan and Syria. These are but continuation of keni, kenatu, kera (n) tu and not otherwise.
  
  – Dr. V. Sankaran Nair
  August 15, 2004
  
  Dr. V Sankaran Nair, Secretary, Kampan Foundation For Oriental Studies,
  B.9, Panikker’s Lane, Sasthamangalam, Trivandrum, Pin. 695005
  mailto:vsankarannair@yahoo.co.uk
  
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